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Burns:  Injury to tissues caused by the contact
with heat, flame, chemicals, electricity, or radiation.  First degree
burns show redness; second degree burns show vesication (blisters); third
degree burns show necrosis through the entire skin.  Burns of the
first and second degree are partial-thickness burns, those of the third
are full-thickness burns.

A major burn necessitates painful treatment and a long period of rehabilitation. 
Often fatal or permanently disfiguring, it can cause both emotional and
physical incapacitation.

Cause: Thermal burns, the most common type, can result
from residential fires, motor vehicle accidents, playing with matches,
improperly stored gasoline, space heater or electrical malfunctions, scalding
accidents, kitchen accidents, or child abuse.

Chemical burns can result from contact with or ingestion, inhalation,
or injection of acids, alkalis, or vesicants.

Electrical burns may result from contact with faulty electrical wiring
or with high-voltage power lines, or from young children chewing on electric
cords.

Friction or abrasion burns result from harsh rubbing of skin against
a coarse surface.

Sunburn results from excessive exposure to sunlight

Symptoms:

Varies depending on severity and depth of burn–Although most burns
are a combination of different degrees and thickness

First degree burn:  Damage is limited to the epidemics,
causing erythema (redness) and pain

Second degree burn:  The epidemis and part of the
dermis are damaged, producing blisters and mild to moderate edema and pain

Third degree burn:  The epidemis and dermis are damaged. 
No blisters appear, but white, brown, or black tissue and thrombosed vessels
are visible

Fourth degree burn: Damage extends through deeply
charred subcutaneous tissue to muscle and bone

Another way to assess burns is to estimate the size of a burn. 
Size is usually expressed as the percentage of body surface area (BSA)
covered by the burn.  Called The Rule Of Nine Chart:  a correlation
of the burn’s depth and size permits an estimate of its severity.

Major:  Third degree burns on more than 10% of BSA;
second degree burns on  more than 25% of adult BSA (more than 20%
in children); burns of hands, face, feet, or genitalia; burns complicated
by fractures or respiratory damage; electrical burns; all burns in poor
risk patients.

Moderate:  Third degree burns on 2% to 10% of BSA;
second degree burns on 15% to 25% of adult BSA (10% to 20% in children).

Minor:  Third degree burns on less than 2% ;of BSA;
second degree burns on less than 15% of adult BSA (10% in children)

Other important factors:

Location:  Burns on the face, hands, feet, and genitalia are most
serious, because of possible loss of function

Configuration:  Circumferential burns can cause total occlusion
of circulation in an extremity as a result of edema.  Burns on the
neck can produce airway obstruction, whereas burns on the chest can lead
to restricted respiratory expansion

History of complication medical problems: Disorders that impair peripheral
circulation, especially diabetes, peripheral vascular disease, and chronic,
alcohol abuse

Other injuries sustain at the time of the burn

Patient age:  Victims under age 4 or over age 60 have a higher
incidence of complications and, consequently, a higher mortality

Pulmonary injury can result from smoke inhalation

Burns involving breathing difficulty

Burns covering more than one body part

Burns to the head, neck, hands, feet, or genitals

Burns (other than a very minor one) to a child or elderly person

Burns resulting from chemicals, explosions, or electricity

Check the scene and the victim

Send someone to call for an ambulance if necessary

Stop the burning.  Put out flames and remove person from source
of the burn

Cool the burn.  Use large amounts of cool water.  Do no use
ice or ice water except on small surface burns

Apply soaked towels, sheets, or other wet cloth to the face or other
areas that cannot be immersed

Keep cloth cool by adding more water

Cover the burn.  Use dry, sterile dressings or a clean cloth. 
Loosely bandage dressing in place ot prevent infection and reduce pain
or cover burned area with dry sheet

Sunburn:  Cool the burn

Protect from further damage by staying out of sun or wearing a protective
lotion

Protect unbroken blisters with loose bandages and keep broken blisters
clean to prevent infection

Electrical Burns: Check the scene and the victim

Send someone to call for an ambulance if necessary

Never go near a victim until the power is turned off

If a power line is down, wait for the fire department or power company

Check breathing and pulse if person is unconscious.

Give rescue breathing or CPR if needed

Do not move person unnecessarily because there may be internal injuries

Check for possibility of two wounds; entrance and exit burns

Do not cool burn

Cover burn with dry, sterile dressing

Chemical Burns:

Send someone to call for an ambulance, if necessary

Flush both skin and eyes with large amounts of cool running water until
ambulance arrives.  Always flush away from the body

Remove clothing and jewelry that may trap chemical against the skin
or on which chemicals may have spilled

Smoke Inhalation:

Move the person to fresh air

Send someone to call for an ambulance

Check breathing and pulse

Support the person in the position in which it is easiest to breathe

If person is unconscious, place on side and monitor breathing closely

Bronchitis:  inflammation of one or more
bronchi

Bronchus:  one of the larger passages conveying air
to and within the lungs

Chronic Bronchitis:  Excessive mucus production with productive
cough for at least 3 months a year for 2 successive years.  Only a
minority of patients with the clinical syndrome of chronic bronchitis develop
significant airway obstruction.

Cause:  Severitly of disease related to amount and duration
of smoking; respiratory infection  exacerbates symptoms;  Allergies;
Pollutants

Hypertrophy ( enlargement or overgrowth) and hyperplasia ( abnormal
increase in the number of normal cells in normal arrangement )of bronchial
mucous glands

Wide spread inflammation

Distortion

Narrowing of airways, and mucus within the airways produce resistance
in small airways and cause severe ventilation perfusion imbalance

Symptoms:

Wheezing

Coughing

Shortness of breath

Dyspnea (difficulty breathing)

Chronic Bronchitis:

Insidious onset, with productive  cough and exertional dyspnea

Colds associated with increased sputum production and worsening dyspnea
that take progressively longer to resolve; copious sputum (gray, white,
or yellow in color)

Weight gain from edema ( abnormal accumulation of fluid in intercellular
spaces of the body)

Cyanosis (a bluish discoloration of skin)

Tachypnea (rapid respiration)

Wheezing

Prolong expiratory time

Use of accessory muscles of respiration

Treatment:

Antibiotic therapy – for infections

Bronchodilators – to relieve bronchospasm and facilitate mucocillary
clearance

Adequate fluid intake and chest physiotherapy to mobilize secretions

Ultrasonic or mechanical nebulizer treatments to loosen secretions and
aid in mobilization

Occasionally Corticosteroids

Diuretics for edema

Oxygen for hypoxemia (deficient oxygenation of the blood)

Avoidance of smoking and air pollutants

Bulimia:  Abnormal increase in sensation of hunger –
an eating disorder on the rise among teenage females.  Patients with
this disorder go on repeated eating binges.  Typically, they induce
vomiting so that they may eat again, the patient may eat several times
a day (binge), then purge to allow self to vomit.  Purging allows
the patient to feel in control of food intake and allows eating to continue
until abdominal pain, sleep, or the presence of another person interrupts
it.  Patients with bulimia are obsessed with body shape and weight. 
They may also use diuretics and or an excessive use of laxative. 
Patient may exercise vigorously, have excessive sleep pattern, and strict
dieting or fasting regimes.  Patient may be afraid of not being able
to control weight and their eating binges, they become depressed and have
self – deprecating thoughts after a binge- purge episode.

This eating disorder usually begins in adolescence or early adulthood,
the exact cause of bulimia remains unknown, studies shows that psychosocial
factors that probably contribute to its development include family disturbance
or conflict, struggle for control or self – identity, cultural overemphasis
on physical appearance, and weight requirements associated with competitive
activities.  Psychiatric theory leans strongly toward considering
bulimia a syndrome of depression.

Symptoms:

• Episodic binge eating as often as several times a day, and purging through
  vomiting, laxatives, or diuretics. 

• Weight fluctuations (though, exercise usually keep weight within normal
  range)

• Excessive exercise schedule

• Feeling of distorted body image

• Low self – esteem, worthlessness, anxiety, and hopelessness

• May have an enlarged lymph glands in the neck

• Often breath smells of mouth wash

• Dental problems

Treatments:

Patient with this disorder knows that his eating pattern is abnormal
but can not control it.  Interventions focus on breaking the binge
– purge cycle and helping the patient regain control over eating behavior.

Treatment includes;  behavior modification therapy, patient may
be an outpatient basis.

Support group therapy – self help groups, such as Overeaters Anonymous

One on one  psychotherapy and family therapy

Antidepressant therapy

We recommend the American Anorexia/Bulimia Association and Anorexia
Nervosa for further assistance and information.

Note:  Bulimia is seldom confused with any other physical disorder. 
Laboratory tests may rule out hypokalemia or alkalosis associated with
electrolyte imbalances or dehydration.

This this order is very serious, and can lead to complications such
as  (heart attack)

Bronchiectasis:   An irreversible condition
marked by chronic abnormal dilation of bronchi and destruction of bronchial
walls, this disorder can occur throughout the tracheobronchial tree or
can be confined to one segment or lobe.  It is usually bilateral,
involving the basilar segments of the lower lobes.  Bronchiectasis
has three forms:  Cylindrical (fusiform), varicose, and saccular (cystic). 
It affects people of both sexes and all ages.

Bronchus:  one of the larger passages conveying air to (right
or left principal bronchus) and within the lungs (lobar and segmental bronchi)

Cause:  Bronchiectasis results from conditions associated
with repeated damage to bronchial walls and abnormal mucociliary clearance,
which cause a breakdown of supporting tissue adjacent to airways. 
Conditions include:

Mucoviscidosis (cystic fibrosis of the pancreas)

Immunologic disorders

Recurrent, inadequately treated bacterial respiratory tract infections

Measles, pneumonia, pertussis, or influenza

Obstruction (by a foreign body, tumor, or stenosis) associated
with recurrent infection

Inhalation of corrosive gas or repeated aspiration of gastric juices
into the lungs

Congenital anomalies

Symptoms:

May start off with no symptoms at all (asymptomatic)

Chronic cough that produces copious, foul-smelling, mucopurulent (pus)
secretions

Coarse crackles during inspiration over involved lobes or segments

Wheezes

Dyspnea (difficulty breathing)

Weight loss

malaise

Recurrent fever

Chills

Other signs of infections

Treatment:

Antibiotic therapy

Bronchodilators

Postural drainage and chest percussion

Bronchoscopy may be used occasionally to aid mobilization of secretions.

Oxygen therapy for patient with hypoxemia

Severe hemoptysis commonly requires lobectomy or segmental resection

* To help prevent this disease, vigorously treat bacterial pneumonia.

* Immunization to prevent childhood diseases

Breast Engorgement & Mastitis

Mastitis:Parenchymatous inflammation of the mammary glands

Breast engorgement: Congestion

Mastitis and breast engorgement are disorders that may affect lactating
females.  Mastitis occurs in about 1% of postpartum patients, usually
primiparas (a woman who has had one pregnancy that resulted in a viable
young) who is breast feeding.  It may also occur in nonlactating females
and rarely in males.

All breast-feeding moms develop some degree of engorgement, but it is
especially likely to be more severe in primiparas.

Cause:  Mastitis may develop when a pathogen that typically
originates in the nursing infant’s nose or pharynx invades breast tissue
through a fissured or cracked nipple and interferes with normal lactation. 
The most common pathogen is Staphylococcus aureus.  Rarely, mastitis
may result from disseminated tuberculosis or the mumps virus.

Predisposing factors include a fissure or abrasion of the nipple; blocked
milk ducts; and an incomplete let-down reflex, usually resulting from emotional
trauma.  Blocked mild ducts can result from a tight bra or prolonged
intervals between breast-feedings.

The cause for breast engorgement include venous  and lymphatic
stasis, and alveolar milk accumulation.

Symptoms:

Mastitis may develop anytime during lactation but normally begins
3 to 4 weeks postpartum.

Fever 101 degrees F. or higher

Malaise

Flu-like symptoms

Breast may be tender, hard, swollen, and warm

Must be treated adequately, or it may progress to breast abscess

Breast engorgement usually starts with onset of lactation

The breast undergo some changes similar to those of mastitis, and body
temperature may be elevated.

Engorgement may be mild to severe.  Mild case cause only slight
discomfort, while severe cases cause considerable pain. (a severely engorged
breast can interfere with the neonate’s capacity to feed because of his
inability to position his mouth properly on the swollen rigid breast.

Treatment:

Mastitis:  Antibiotic therapy (although symptoms usually subside
2 to 3 days after treatment begins, but do not stop antibiotic therapy,
it should be continue as prescribed by your doctor – usually 10 days treatment) 
When antibiotic fails (though rare) to control the infection and mastitis
progresses to breast abscess, incision and drainage of the abscess may
be done.

Analgesics may be prescribed for pain

Breast engorgement:  goal is to relieve discomfort and control
swelling.

Your doctor may prescribed analgesics to alleviate pain

Ice packs and uplift support to minimize edema.

Oxytocin nasal spray may be prescribed (rarely) to release mild from
the alveoli into the ducts.

To facilitate breast-feeding, the mother may manually express excess
milk before a feeding so the baby can grasp the nipple properly.

Breast-feeding:  Breast milk contains a
unique balance of nutrients, it’s considered the ideal food for infants. 
What’s more, the maternal antibodies it  contains help protect the
infant against allergy and infection.

The U.S. Surgeon General and the American Academy of Pediatrics recommend
breast-feeding for at least the first 6 months of life.  Breast mild
contains the perfect balance of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. 
It is easily digestible.  It provides a rich source of linoleic acid
(an essential fatty acid), and it contains immune factors that protect
infants from infection.  Breast-feeding right after birth helps the
uterus contract and return to its former size and position.

Breast-feeding has some drawbacks, because newborns require feeding
every 2 to 4 hours (called: demand feeding) and the mother is the only
source of milk.  The mom will have to change her routine and interrupt
her sleep to accommodate the infant’s schedule. (as infant grows, and sleep
patterns is develop, feeding time is not as frequent).  Mom’s don’t
be afraid to ask for help, if you have other children, have them help with
chores.  Rest when your infant is sleeping.  Remember as your
infant grows and begins to eat solid food, he will require fewer breast
-feeding but will consume more milk at each feeding.

Getting ready to breast-feed:  First- Always wash your hands.
Second- wash your nibble with a warm clean washcloth (don’t use soap).
Third- Relax.  Start by making yourself comfortable.

Sit with your back straight or lightly bent forward. (You can support
your back with a pillow, or put a pillow on your lap to raise your infant
to breast level.)

If you had a cesarean section:  you may want to try laying on your
side to relieve pressure on your suture line (this allows you to support
your infant with your lower arm.)

Feeding your baby:  Rest  your baby’s head in the crook
of your elbow and support his back with your hand (always support the baby’s
head)

Then turn the baby’s body (not just the head) towards you, and to cup
your breast with your other hand (fingers under, thumb above).

Next:  Touch your baby’s cheek nearest you to make your baby’s
turn his head, and then, touch your nipple to his mouth to stimulate his
rooting and sucking reflexes. (he will smell your milk and open his mouth).

When he does, insert your nipple and areola (the dark area around
the nipple) in his mouth, so that the tip of his nose touches the top of
your breast (it may look like he can’t breath but he can).  Make sure
your entire areola is in his mouth, otherwise, his sucking will be ineffective
for him and it can be very painful for you.

Let the baby feed from both breast at every feeding.  You should
start from 2 to 5 minutes for each breast, then 10 to 15 minutes regularly.
Remember to burp the baby after he finishes feeding from each breast.

How to break suction:  when the baby has finished feeding,
gently pull his chin down or gently insert a finger into the corner of
his mouth to break the suction and release the nipple. (don’t simply pull
free, it can be very painful and can cause sore nipples).  Although
your baby dictates the breast -feeding schedule, there is flexibility,
for example:  you can occasionally give a bottle of formula when breast
-feeding isn’t convenient, or you can express your milk by hand or with
a breast pump and refrigerate it for later use (do not microwave breast
milk – it will lose it’s immune nutrient- heat by putting the bottle into
a very hot pan of water and always check temperature of milk by putting
a drop or two on top of your wrist – it should not be hot).

Care of breast and nipple:  It is best to air dry your nipples
after you have finished breast -feeding or after expressing milk. 
Wear a nursing bra that support and is comfortable.  Wear a nursing
pad or a soft cloth in your bra (more likely, your breast milk will leak.)

Storing breast milk:  Refrigerated milk must be used within
24 hours, and frozen milk must be used within a few weeks.  Thaw frozen
milk under lukewarm tap water and to use it within 3 hours (do not thaw
frozen milk in the microwave oven, and never refreeze it)

Patient teaching:  When breast-feeding, you need adequate
sleep, have  a good well balance nutritional diet, drink plenty of
water (8 oz. water at least 8 times daily) Avoid alcohol, excessive caffeine,
and over the counter medications (ask your doctor in regards to medications)

Many hospitals encourage mothers to breast-feed within 2 hours after
birth because early and frequent feedings may help decrease breast engorgement
and promote successful breast-feeding. (Breast-feeding may have to be postponed
or interrupted in the hospital if the baby is premature or has jaundice.) 
Also keep in mind that breast-feeding may have to stop temporarily if you
develop a generalized infection.

Many women don’t menstruate while they’re breast-feeding but that breast-feeding
shouldn’t be used as birth control.  Pregnancy can still occur, so
take precautions.

Remember:  breast feeding is a matter of choice, it is also common
and your baby still will get the complete nutrient if you choose to bottle
feed.  No matter what you choose whether you choose breast-feed or
bottle-feed, mother and baby will still have the emotional satisfaction
and bonding that is beautiful and fulfilling.

Learn the facts and symptoms of Breast cancer

Breast Reconstruction or Reconstruction mammoplasty: 
can help relieve the emotional distress caused by mastectomy.  As
a result, it can improve the patient’s self-image and restore her sexual
identify.

Breast reconstruction isn’t for every mastectomy patient.  For
instance, it’s contraindicated when metastasis is possible, if healing
is impaired, or if the patient has unrealistic expectations.  Even
when breast reconstruction is feasible, some women choose not to undergo
it.  They’re comfortable, active, and well adjusted without it. 
Or they may not consider the burden of additional surgery, anesthesia,
pain, or expense worthwhile.

How it’s done:  In breast reconstruction, the surgeon places an
implant filled with silicone or saline solution under the skin.  He
may bank the patient’s own nipple on her inner thigh or inguinal area and
salvage it at the appropriate time.  (Its color may darken in the
immediate postoperative period, but this should fade)  Or the surgeon
may reconstruct a nipple from labial tissue.

This is a matter of choice, you may want to contact the local chapter
of the American Cancer Society for any additional information, and you
may also want to talk to someone from the Reach to Recovery program.

Mastectomy: This procedure removes malignant
breast tissue and any regional lymphatic metastases and often works in
combination with radiation therapy and chemotherapy.  There are six
different types of mastectomy, depending on the size of the tumor and the
presence of any metastases.

Partial mastectomy:  also called a lumpectomy, typlectomy,
or segmental resection.  Usually done for Stage 1 lesions.  This
approach leaves a cosmetically satisfactory breast but may fail to remove
all malignant tissue or to detect metastases in axillary lymph nodes.

Subcutaneous mastectomy:  treats patients with a
central, noninvasive tumor, chronic cystic mastitis, multiple fibroadenomas,
or hyperplastic duct changes.

Simple mastectomy:  if a tumor is confined to breast
tissue, the surgeon may perform a simple mastectomy.  It’s also used
palliatively for advanced, ulcerative malignancy and as treatment for extensive
benign disease.

Modified radical mastectomy:  This is usually the
standard surgery for Stage1 and Stage11 lesions, to remover small, localized
tumors.  Besides causing less disfigurement than a radical mastectomy
(which was the treatment of choice until recently), it also reduces postoperative
arm edema and shoulder problems.

Radical mastectomy:  controls the spread of larger,
metastatic lesions.  Later, the surgeon may perform breast reconstruction,
using a portion of the latissimus dorsi.

Extended radical mastectomy:  Rarely, this procedure
may treat malignancy in the medial quadrant of the breast or in subareolar
tissue.  It prevents possible metastasis to the internal mammary lymph
nodes.

In any type of mastectomy, infection and delayed healing can result. 
The major complication of radical mastectomy and axillary dissection is
lymphedema, occurring soon after surgery and persisting for years. 
Dissection of the lymph nodes draining the axilla may interfere with lymphatic
drainage of the arm of the affected side.

Home Care Instructions:  Prevention of lymphedema (chronic
swelling of a part due to accumulation of interstitial fluid (edema) secondary
to obstruction of lymphatic vessels or lymph nodes).  Swelling may
follow even minor trauma to the arm on the affected side.

Wash cuts and scrapes on the affected side promptly and to contact your
doctor immediately if it becomes red, with edema, or induration occurs.

Use the arm as much as possible and to avoid keeping it in a dependent
position for a prolonged period.

Range of motion exercise daily is important (do it with both arms to
maintain symmetry and prevent additional deformities)

Do not allow any blood pressure readings, injections, or venipunctures
to be performed on the affected arm.

Keep postoperative appointments

Monthly self-examination of the remaining breast and the mastectomy
site is important (report any unusual lumps)

The patient energy level will wax and wane, be alert of signs of fatigue
and to rest frequently during the day for at least the first few weeks
after discharge.

There are permanent prosthesis that can be discuss with your doctor
(it can be fitted 3 to 4 weeks after surgery)

Breast self-examination:  Because 90% of
breast cancers are discovered by women themselves, it is important that
patients do their own monthly self-examination.  The best time for
this examination is immediately after your menstrual period. (if patient
hasn’t reached menopause).  If past menopause, you can examine your
breast at any time.

Standing before a mirror:

Step 1. Undress to the waist, stand in front of a mirror, with your arms
at your sides.  Observe your breast for any change in their shape
or size and any puckering or dimpling of the skin.

Step 2. Raise your arms and press your hands together behind your
head.  Observe as you did in step 1.

Step 3. Press your palms firmly on your hips.  Observed your
breast again.

Lying down:   Step 1.   Examine
your breast while lying flat on your back.  This will flatten and
spread your breasts more evenly over the chest wall.  Place a small
pillow under your left shoulder, and put your left hand behind your head

Step 2.  Examine your left breast with your right hand, using a
circular motion and progressing clockwise, until you have examined every
portion. (you  will notice a ridge of firm tissue in the lower curve
of your breast, which is normal)  Check the area under your arm with
your elbow slightly bent. (don’t be alarmed if you feel a small lump under
your armpit that moves freely; this area contains lymph glands, which may
become swollen when you are ill)  Check the lump daily, and call a
doctor if it doesn’t go away in a few days or if it gets larger.

Step 3.  Gently squeeze the nipple between your thumb and forefinger,
and note any discharge.  Repeat this examination on the right breast,
using your left hand.

In the shower:  You can examine your breast while
in the shower or bath, after first lubricating them with soap and water. 
Using the same circular, clockwise motion, you should gently inspect both
breasts with your fingertips.  After you have toweled dry, you should
squeeze each nipple gently, noting any discharge.

What to do about lumps:  First, don’t panic if you
feel a lump while examining your breasts.  Most lumps aren’t cancerous. 
See if you can easily lift the skin covering it and whether the lump moves
when you do so.

Notify your doctor if you notice any change, discharge, and or lump. 
He will want to examine it and then tell you if you need further tests
and or treatment.

Although self-examination is important, it is not a substitute for examination
by your doctor .  See your doctor annually or semiannually, if you
are considered at special risk.